Comparing products on total cost and real reliability, not the sticker price

The short answer

• Add up the years, not just the price tag. A product's real cost is the all-in purchase price, plus what it uses (energy, water, filters, ink, refills), plus subscriptions and likely repairs, minus what you can sell it for later.
• Use the kilowatt-hours on the EnergyGuide label with your own electricity price. The label's dollar figure assumes a national average energy price, so it may not match your bill.
• Compare unit prices in the same unit. No federal law requires stores to post them, and California's law encourages them but does not require them. When the shelf tag has no unit price, divide the price by the quantity yourself.
• On anything that plugs in, charges or heats, look for the mark of a testing lab that OSHA recognizes, such as UL or CSA. Check for recalls before you buy, especially secondhand.
• In California, the advertised price must include all mandatory fees. Since July 1, 2024, only government taxes and fees, reasonable shipping costs, optional extras and a few other charges may be left out. A federal rule has required total prices for live-event tickets and short-term lodging since May 12, 2025.
• Treat warranty length as a clue, not a promise. Read what the warranty covers, and weigh any extended warranty against the repair it would actually pay for.

Total cost of ownership: what to add up

The price tag is only the first payment. Over the years you own something, the other costs can add up to more than the tag. Before you compare two products, list each of these costs for both.

Not every row matters for every product: for a printer, watch the ink; for a phone, resale value; for a refrigerator, which runs all day, energy.

How to work out the five-year cost

1. Choose a time frame. Use how long you expect to keep the item. This guide uses five years.
2. Write down the all-in purchase price for each option, including delivery and any parts you must buy.
3. Work out the yearly running cost. Energy: the yearly kWh on the label times your price per kWh. Consumables: the price of each item times the number you use a year. Subscriptions: the monthly fee times 12.
4. Multiply the yearly running cost by the number of years.
5. Add a repair allowance for the years after the warranty ends. It is a guess, so make the same kind of guess for both options, and adjust it for warranty length and for what reviewers report about repairs.
6. Subtract the resale or trade-in value, or add the cost of disposal.
7. Divide by the number of years to get a cost per year. For something you use a set number of times, such as a razor or a pair of running shoes, divide by the number of uses instead.

Your price per kWh is on your electric bill. If your plan charges more above a set amount of use, or at certain hours, use the higher price. An estimate is fine: the aim is to compare two options the same way.

A worked example: two refrigerators over five years

Refrigerator A looks $300 cheaper on the tag, but it costs about $967 more over five years. Most of the gap comes from electricity and filters, and neither shows up on the price tag.

Test your assumptions. If you skip the filters and drink tap water, A's total drops to $2,503, which is still $416.50 more than B. If you pay 25 cents per kWh instead of 35, A's electricity falls to $875 and B's to $562.50, and B is still cheaper by $841.50. If changing one assumption flips the answer, check that assumption most carefully.

The numbers are invented; the method is the point. Put the label's kWh, your own energy price and the real cost of filters, fees and repairs into one table for both options.

Unit prices: comparing sizes and packs

A unit price is the price per ounce, pound, sheet or count. It lets you compare a big box with a small one, or two brands.

What the law requires

• Federal: "There is no federal mandate that requires unit pricing," according to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), which publishes a voluntary best-practice unit pricing guide for stores (June 2025). NIST counts 16 states, plus the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, with unit pricing laws or regulations in effect.
• California: California is not on NIST's list. Business and Professions Code section 12655 says the Legislature intends to "encourage" unit pricing of packaged foods, packaged produce and bakery goods, and of some household paper, plastic, cleaning and laundry products and drug and first-aid products sold in counts over 10. Section 12656 has the state, working with the retail food industry, adopt a standard shelf-tag format that a store can ask for. It shows the item and brand, the total price, the quantity and the price per unit. Unit prices are encouraged in California, not required.

How to compare

1. Check that both tags use the same unit. One tag may show the price per ounce and another the price per pound (16 ounces), or one per count and another per 100 count.
2. If a tag has no unit price, divide the price by the quantity.
3. Check whether the unit price on the tag uses the sale price or the regular price.
4. For concentrates, compare the price per use, such as per load of laundry, using the number of uses printed on the package.

If the register charges more than the tag

The California Department of Food and Agriculture (CDFA) has said that charging more than the lowest price posted, quoted or advertised is a crime under California law, and that shoppers have "the right to be charged the correct price" (CDFA, 2011). County weights and measures offices check this with price verification inspections, which Napa County says "ensure consumers are charged the lowest advertised price at the point of sale." In 2025, six California district attorneys announced a settlement with Lowe's that included more than $1 million in civil penalties over charging customers more than its lowest advertised or posted price.

1. Watch the screen as items are scanned, check your receipt before you leave, and ask for a price check if something looks wrong.
2. If the store will not fix it, file a complaint with your county's agricultural commissioner and sealer of weights and measures. Some counties, such as Napa and Sonoma, take complaints online, and Sonoma County's sealer has said they can be made anonymously.

Reading the EnergyGuide and ENERGY STAR labels

The yellow EnergyGuide label

The Federal Trade Commission's (FTC) Energy Labeling Rule requires makers to label major home appliances so you can compare energy use and cost. For most covered products, the FTC says the label shows three things:

1. the estimated yearly operating cost;
2. a range showing the highest and lowest energy use, or efficiency, of similar models; and
3. the model's own energy use (for example, kWh per year) or efficiency rating.

The FTC's shopping advice lists products that carry the label, including refrigerators, freezers, dishwashers, clothes washers, water heaters, televisions, room and portable air conditioners, central air conditioners, heat pumps, furnaces, boilers, pool heaters and ceiling fans. If you do not see the label in the store, look inside the appliance or check the seller's or maker's website.

The FTC calls the yearly cost "only an estimate, based on typical use and a national average price for energy," and says your cost will depend on how you use the appliance and on your local energy price. That is why the five-year math uses the kWh figure and your own price. Compare a model's place on the range only with similar models, since that is what the range covers.

The ENERGY STAR mark

The FTC says the ENERGY STAR label "helps you identify high-efficiency models." The Congressional Research Service describes the label as marking products that use less energy but perform at least as well as standard models (CRS, April 2026).

The program is moving between agencies. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Department of Energy (DOE) have run it jointly. According to EPA, the two agencies signed an agreement on March 3, 2026, to consolidate leadership at DOE, released a transition plan on August 28, 2026, and expect the full transition to be complete by July 2027. Congress set aside at least $33,024,000 for EPA's ENERGY STAR work in fiscal year 2026, according to CRS.

An ENERGY STAR model is not always the cheaper choice. If it costs much more up front and you use it lightly, the energy savings may never cover the difference, so do the math. The FTC suggests asking the salesperson or your utility about rebates or low-interest loans for efficient models; a rebate lowers the all-in price in your table.

Safety marks: UL and other recognized testing labs

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) runs the Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) program. It recognizes private organizations to test and certify certain products against safety test standards. Each lab uses its own registered certification mark. After a lab certifies a product, it lets the maker put that mark on it.

OSHA recognition means the lab meets the requirements of a federal rule, 29 CFR 1910.7, and can perform independent safety testing and certification. OSHA has recognized Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and CSA Group, among others. The program exists so employers can show that equipment meets OSHA's workplace electrical standards, but the same marks are a useful check on what you buy for home.

• Look for a lab's actual mark on the product or its rating label, not just the word "tested" or "certified" on the box.
• If you do not recognize the lab, check it on OSHA's NRTL program pages.
• Be most careful with things that heat, charge batteries or run unattended, such as space heaters, chargers and power strips.
• Know what the mark means. It means the product was tested to a safety standard. It is not a rating of quality, performance or how long the product will last.

Warranty length as a reliability signal

A maker that offers a longer warranty is agreeing to pay for more repairs, so a longer warranty can be a sign it expects fewer. The fine print still matters more than the headline number. Ask to see the written warranty before you buy; many makers post it on their website.

Extended warranties and service plans

Treat an extended warranty or service plan as a separate purchase, and run it through the same math.

• Check when it starts. If it overlaps the maker's warranty, you are paying for coverage you already have.
• Compare its price with the repair it would most likely pay for, and with the repair allowance in your table.
• Read the exclusions, deductibles and service-call fees, and find out which company actually handles claims.
• Check whether you can cancel and get a partial refund.

Recalls and complaints: check before you buy

A product's safety record is part of its reliability. Before you buy, especially used, spend five minutes on public records.

• Search for recalls. Our guide to checking whether a product has been recalled shows which federal agency to search for each kind of product and which details must match. For household and children's products, that is the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC).
• Read the safety complaints. CPSC's SaferProducts.gov publishes safety reports filed by the public. They are not recalls, and CPSC does not guarantee their accuracy, but several reports describing the same failure are worth noticing. The recall guide explains how to read them.
• Use reviews to spot repair patterns. The FTC suggests reading expert reviews for details such as noise, water use and how likely a product is to need repairs. Look for the same problem reported by several owners after a similar length of use.
• Check that reviews are real first. See how to spot fake reviews before you trust them.
• Buying used? Match the exact model number against recall notices before you pay.

Hidden fees and drip pricing: what the law requires

"Drip pricing" means advertising a low price and adding mandatory fees later, often at checkout. California and the federal government now limit it in different ways.

California: SB 478, the all-in price rule

Since July 1, 2024, California law (Civil Code section 1770(a)(29), added by SB 478) has prohibited advertising, displaying or offering a price that does not include all mandatory fees or charges. In the words of the Attorney General's FAQ, "the price a Californian sees should be the price they pay." The law does not cap prices or ban fees; it requires the advertised price to be complete.

The advertised price may leave out only:

• government taxes and fees, such as sales tax;
• reasonable postage or carriage costs actually incurred to ship physical goods (handling charges must be included);
• fees for optional extras you choose;
• charges that depend on something you do later, such as a late-return fee; and
• voluntary tips.

The FAQ gives examples of pricing that does not comply: disclosing mandatory fees separately, even early in the purchase; advertising a lower price with a note that fees will be added; showing a base price plus a separate percentage fee; and adding a variable service fee later in the sale. A business may show the full price and also say what fees it includes.

Federal: the FTC fees rule for tickets and lodging

Nationwide, the FTC's Rule on Unfair or Deceptive Fees (16 CFR Part 464) took effect on May 12, 2025. It covers live-event tickets, such as concerts, sports and theater, and short-term lodging, such as hotels, motels, vacation rentals and home shares. Businesses must show the total price up front, including all mandatory fees they know about and can calculate, and must show it more prominently than other pricing information, except the final amount you pay. The rule also bars misrepresenting the nature, purpose, amount or refundability of fees (GAO). The FTC says the rule does not ban any type or amount of fee (FTC, May 2025). The FTC's regulatory agenda lists the rule as a completed action.

If fees appear late, screenshot the advertised price and the checkout page, back out, and report it (see below).

Sale prices, price matching and price tracking

"Was" prices

In California, an ad may call a price a "former price" only if it was the prevailing market price within the three months before the ad ran, or if the ad clearly states when that former price applied (Business and Professions Code section 17501). A price history from a tracking tool helps you judge whether a "was $199" claim reflects a real recent price.

Price matching and price adjustments

Price matching, and refunds of the difference when a price drops after you buy, depend on each store's written policy. Read it before you count on it, and check:

• The exact model number. A similar-looking model may not qualify.
• Which competitors count, and whether online-only stores or third-party marketplace sellers count.
• Exclusions, such as clearance, open-box, membership-only, bundle or limited-time prices.
• The proof needed, such as a current ad or the competitor's web page. Take a dated screenshot.
• The deadline for asking for an adjustment after you buy, and how it compares with the return period.

Price tracking

• Set your target on total cost, not the tag. A deal on the less efficient model can still lose over five years.
• Use alerts from the store's app or a price-tracking tool, and compare at least two sellers, counting delivery and return costs.
• Check a browser extension's permissions before you install it. Some ask to read and change every site you visit. Decide whether the savings are worth that access.

Health and medical products: different checks

For a product that measures or treats a health problem, accuracy and safety come before price. The questions are different, and other guides on this site cover them:

• Choosing a home blood pressure monitor: check it is validated, not just well reviewed
• Generic versus brand-name medicines: what is the same, what can differ, and what to ask
• Prescription drugs, over-the-counter products and supplements: why all three matter
• HSA or FSA? How each works, and how to budget for irregular medical costs

Before you buy a device or product for a health condition, ask your clinician or pharmacist, especially if you will use its readings to make decisions about a medicine.

Where to get free help

• Overcharged at the register, or a shelf price that does not match: your county's agricultural commissioner and sealer of weights and measures. CDFA's Division of Measurement Standards has also asked to hear about overcharges.
• Hidden fees or misleading prices: the Federal Trade Commission at ReportFraud.ftc.gov. For California's all-in pricing law, read the Attorney General's SB 478 FAQ, and check the Attorney General's website, oag.ca.gov, for how to file a consumer complaint.
• An unsafe product or a recall: CPSC for household and children's products. The recall guide lists where to report each kind of product, with phone numbers.
• A business that keeps doing it: your county district attorney. District attorneys bring consumer protection cases, such as the 2025 Lowe's settlement over checkout prices.

Sources

1. SB 478 Frequently Asked Questions (Honest Pricing Law) — California Department of Justice, Office of the Attorney General, undated, accessed October 29, 2026.
2. The Rule on Unfair or Deceptive Fees: Frequently Asked Questions — Federal Trade Commission, May 2025 (last modified May 14, 2025), accessed October 29, 2026.
3. FTC Rule on Unfair or Deceptive Fees to Take Effect on May 12, 2025 — Federal Trade Commission, May 5, 2025.
4. Federal Trade Commission: Trade Regulation Rule on Unfair or Deceptive Fees (B-337257) — U.S. Government Accountability Office, March 25, 2025.
5. Federal Trade Commission Semiannual Regulatory Agenda (Spring 2025), 90 FR No. 181 — Federal Register via GovInfo, September 22, 2025.
6. How To Use the EnergyGuide Label To Shop for Home Appliances — Federal Trade Commission, Consumer Advice, August 2022 (last modified June 26, 2026).
7. Federal Trade Commission Updates Labeling Rule Designed to Help Consumers Reduce Energy Costs — Federal Trade Commission, October 3, 2022.
8. Energy Star — U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, last updated August 28, 2026.
9. ENERGY STAR Program (In Focus IF10753) — Congressional Research Service, April 23, 2026, via EveryCRSReport.com.
10. Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory Program — Occupational Safety and Health Administration, accessed October 29, 2026.
11. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.: Grant of Renewal of Recognition — Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Federal Register, July 14, 2014.
12. Federal Register notices on NRTL recognition, including CSA Group Testing & Certification Inc. and IAPMO EGS — Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Federal Register via GovInfo, February 23, 2021.
13. Unit Pricing Guide: A Best Practice Approach to Unit Pricing (NIST SP 1181-2025) — National Institute of Standards and Technology, Office of Weights and Measures, June 2025.
14. California Business and Professions Code section 12655 — Public.Law reproduction of the California code, accessed October 29, 2026.
15. Business and Professions Code Chapter 6.5, Unit Pricing, sections 12655–12656 — California Department of Food and Agriculture, Division of Measurement Standards, field copy rev. January 2015.
16. California Business and Professions Code section 17501 — Public.Law reproduction of the California code, accessed October 29, 2026.
17. Holiday Buyers Urged to Beware to Protect Against Overcharges — California Department of Food and Agriculture, Planting Seeds blog, November 18, 2011 (updated February 26, 2020).
18. Weights & Measures — County of Napa, accessed October 29, 2026.
19. Lowe's settles consumer protection case for scanner price overcharges and false advertising — NorCal Public Media, 2025, accessed October 29, 2026.